In the primitive ages of the world, agriculture, as well as
the keeping of flocks, was a principal employment among men Gen. ii, 15;
iii, 17–19; iv, 2. It is an art which has ever been a prominent source,
both of the necessaries and the conveniences of life. Those states and
nations, especially Babylon and Egypt, which made the cultivation of the
soil their chief business, arose in a short period to wealth and power.
To these communities just mentioned, which excelled in this particular
all the others of antiquity, may be added that of the Hebrews, who
learned the value of the art while remaining in Egypt, and ever after
that time were famous for their industry in the cultivation of the
earth. Moses, following the example of the Egyptians, made agriculture
the basis of the state. He accordingly apportioned to every citizen a
certain quantity of land, and gave him the right of tilling it himself,
and of transmitting it to his heirs. The person who had thus come into
possession could not alienate the property for any longer period than
the year of the coming jubilee: a regulation which prevented the rich
from coming into possession of large tracts of land, and then leasing
them out in small parcels to the poor: a practice which anciently
prevailed, and does to this day, in the east. It was another law of
Moses, that the vender of a piece of land, or his nearest relative, had
a right to redeem the land sold, whenever they chose, by paying the
amount of profits up to the year of jubilee, Ruth iv, 4; Jer. xxxii, 7.
Another law enacted by Moses on this subject was, that the Hebrews, as
was the case among the Egyptians after the time of Joseph, should pay a
tax of two-tenths of their income unto God, whose servants they were to
consider themselves to be, and whom they were to obey as their King and
Lord, Lev. xxvii, 30; Deut. xii, 17–19; xiv, 22–29; Gen. xxviii, 22. The
custom of marking the boundaries of lands by stones, although it
prevailed a long time before, Job xxiv, 2, was confirmed and perpetuated
in the time of Moses by an express law; and a curse was pronounced
against him who without authority removed them. These regulations having
been made in respect to the tenure, incumbrances, &c, of landed
property, Joshua divided the whole country which he had occupied, first
among the respective tribes, and then among individual Hebrews, running
it out with the aid of a measuring line, Joshua xvii, 5, 14; Amos vii,
17; Micah ii, 5; Psalm lxxviii, 55; Ezek. xl, 3. The word, חבל, _a
line_, is accordingly used by a figure of speech, for the heritage
itself, Psalm xvi, 6: “The _lines_ have fallen to me in pleasant places,
yea I have a goodly heritage.” Though Moses was the friend of the
agriculturist, he by no means discouraged the keeper of the flock.
The occupation of the husbandman was held in honour, not only for the
profits which it brought, but from the circumstance that it was
supported and protected by the fundamental laws of the state. All who
were not set apart for religious duties, such as the priests and the
Levites, whether inhabitants of the country, or of towns and cities,
were considered by the laws, and were, in fact, agriculturists. The rich
and the noble, it is true, in the cultivation of the soil, did not
always put themselves on a level with their servants; but none were so
rich or so noble as to disdain to put their hand to the plough, 1 Sam.
xi, 7; 1 Kings xix, 19; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10. The priests and Levites were
indeed engaged in other employments, yet they could not withhold their
honour from an occupation which supplied them with their income. The
esteem in which agriculture was held diminished as luxury increased; but
it never wholly came to an end. Even after the captivity, when many of
the Jews had become merchants and mechanics, the esteem and honour
attached to this occupation still continued, especially under the
dynasty of the Persians, who were agriculturists from motives of
religion.
The soil of Palestine is very fruitful, if the dews and vernal and
autumnal rains are not withheld. The country, in opposition to Egypt, is
eulogized for its rains in Deut. xi, 10. The Hebrews, notwithstanding
the richness of the soil, endeavoured to increase its fertility in
various ways. They not only divested it of stones, but watered it by
means of canals, communicating with the rivers or brooks; and thereby
imparted to their fields the richness of gardens, Psalm i, 3; lxv, 10;
Prov. xxi, 1; Isa. xxx, 25; xxxii, 2, 20. Springs, therefore, fountains,
and rivulets, were held in as much honour and worth by husbandmen as by
shepherds, Joshua xv, 9; Judges i, 15; and we accordingly find that the
land of Canaan was extolled for those fountains of water of which Egypt
was destitute. The soil was enriched, also, in addition to the method
just mentioned, by means of ashes; to which the straw, the stubble, the
husks, the brambles, and grass, that overspread the land during the
sabbatical year, were reduced by fire. The burning over the surface of
the land had also another good effect, namely, that of destroying the
seeds of the noxious herbs, Isa. vii, 23; xxxii, 13; Prov. xxiv, 31.
Finally, the soil was manured with dung.
The Hebrew word, דגן, which is translated variously by the English
words, _grain_, _corn_, &c, is of general signification, and comprehends
in itself different kinds of grain and pulse, such as wheat, millet,
spelt, wall-barley, barley, beans, lentils, meadow-cumin, pepperwort,
flax, cotton; to these may be added various species of the cucumber, and
perhaps rice. Rye and oats do not grow in the warmer climates; but their
place is, in a manner, supplied by barley. Barley, mixed with broken
straw, affords the fodder for beasts of burden, which is called כליל.
Wheat, חטה, which, by way of eminence, is called דגן, grew in Egypt in
the time of Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on several branches from
one stalk, each one of which produced an ear, Gen. xii, 47. This sort of
wheat does not flourish in Palestine: the wheat of Palestine is of a
much better kind.
the keeping of flocks, was a principal employment among men Gen. ii, 15;
iii, 17–19; iv, 2. It is an art which has ever been a prominent source,
both of the necessaries and the conveniences of life. Those states and
nations, especially Babylon and Egypt, which made the cultivation of the
soil their chief business, arose in a short period to wealth and power.
To these communities just mentioned, which excelled in this particular
all the others of antiquity, may be added that of the Hebrews, who
learned the value of the art while remaining in Egypt, and ever after
that time were famous for their industry in the cultivation of the
earth. Moses, following the example of the Egyptians, made agriculture
the basis of the state. He accordingly apportioned to every citizen a
certain quantity of land, and gave him the right of tilling it himself,
and of transmitting it to his heirs. The person who had thus come into
possession could not alienate the property for any longer period than
the year of the coming jubilee: a regulation which prevented the rich
from coming into possession of large tracts of land, and then leasing
them out in small parcels to the poor: a practice which anciently
prevailed, and does to this day, in the east. It was another law of
Moses, that the vender of a piece of land, or his nearest relative, had
a right to redeem the land sold, whenever they chose, by paying the
amount of profits up to the year of jubilee, Ruth iv, 4; Jer. xxxii, 7.
Another law enacted by Moses on this subject was, that the Hebrews, as
was the case among the Egyptians after the time of Joseph, should pay a
tax of two-tenths of their income unto God, whose servants they were to
consider themselves to be, and whom they were to obey as their King and
Lord, Lev. xxvii, 30; Deut. xii, 17–19; xiv, 22–29; Gen. xxviii, 22. The
custom of marking the boundaries of lands by stones, although it
prevailed a long time before, Job xxiv, 2, was confirmed and perpetuated
in the time of Moses by an express law; and a curse was pronounced
against him who without authority removed them. These regulations having
been made in respect to the tenure, incumbrances, &c, of landed
property, Joshua divided the whole country which he had occupied, first
among the respective tribes, and then among individual Hebrews, running
it out with the aid of a measuring line, Joshua xvii, 5, 14; Amos vii,
17; Micah ii, 5; Psalm lxxviii, 55; Ezek. xl, 3. The word, חבל, _a
line_, is accordingly used by a figure of speech, for the heritage
itself, Psalm xvi, 6: “The _lines_ have fallen to me in pleasant places,
yea I have a goodly heritage.” Though Moses was the friend of the
agriculturist, he by no means discouraged the keeper of the flock.
The occupation of the husbandman was held in honour, not only for the
profits which it brought, but from the circumstance that it was
supported and protected by the fundamental laws of the state. All who
were not set apart for religious duties, such as the priests and the
Levites, whether inhabitants of the country, or of towns and cities,
were considered by the laws, and were, in fact, agriculturists. The rich
and the noble, it is true, in the cultivation of the soil, did not
always put themselves on a level with their servants; but none were so
rich or so noble as to disdain to put their hand to the plough, 1 Sam.
xi, 7; 1 Kings xix, 19; 2 Chron. xxvi, 10. The priests and Levites were
indeed engaged in other employments, yet they could not withhold their
honour from an occupation which supplied them with their income. The
esteem in which agriculture was held diminished as luxury increased; but
it never wholly came to an end. Even after the captivity, when many of
the Jews had become merchants and mechanics, the esteem and honour
attached to this occupation still continued, especially under the
dynasty of the Persians, who were agriculturists from motives of
religion.
The soil of Palestine is very fruitful, if the dews and vernal and
autumnal rains are not withheld. The country, in opposition to Egypt, is
eulogized for its rains in Deut. xi, 10. The Hebrews, notwithstanding
the richness of the soil, endeavoured to increase its fertility in
various ways. They not only divested it of stones, but watered it by
means of canals, communicating with the rivers or brooks; and thereby
imparted to their fields the richness of gardens, Psalm i, 3; lxv, 10;
Prov. xxi, 1; Isa. xxx, 25; xxxii, 2, 20. Springs, therefore, fountains,
and rivulets, were held in as much honour and worth by husbandmen as by
shepherds, Joshua xv, 9; Judges i, 15; and we accordingly find that the
land of Canaan was extolled for those fountains of water of which Egypt
was destitute. The soil was enriched, also, in addition to the method
just mentioned, by means of ashes; to which the straw, the stubble, the
husks, the brambles, and grass, that overspread the land during the
sabbatical year, were reduced by fire. The burning over the surface of
the land had also another good effect, namely, that of destroying the
seeds of the noxious herbs, Isa. vii, 23; xxxii, 13; Prov. xxiv, 31.
Finally, the soil was manured with dung.
The Hebrew word, דגן, which is translated variously by the English
words, _grain_, _corn_, &c, is of general signification, and comprehends
in itself different kinds of grain and pulse, such as wheat, millet,
spelt, wall-barley, barley, beans, lentils, meadow-cumin, pepperwort,
flax, cotton; to these may be added various species of the cucumber, and
perhaps rice. Rye and oats do not grow in the warmer climates; but their
place is, in a manner, supplied by barley. Barley, mixed with broken
straw, affords the fodder for beasts of burden, which is called כליל.
Wheat, חטה, which, by way of eminence, is called דגן, grew in Egypt in
the time of Joseph, as it now does in Africa, on several branches from
one stalk, each one of which produced an ear, Gen. xii, 47. This sort of
wheat does not flourish in Palestine: the wheat of Palestine is of a
much better kind.