a sect of philosophers in Greece and Rome. Epicurus was
their founder, who lived about B. C. 300. The physical doctrine of
Epicurus was as follows: Nothing can ever spring from nothing, nor can
any thing ever return to nothing. The universe always existed, and will
always remain; for there is nothing into which it can be changed. There
is nothing in nature, nor can any thing be conceived, beside body and
space. Body is that which possesses the properties of bulk, figure,
resistance, and gravity; it is this alone which can touch and be
touched. Space, or vacuum, destitute of the properties of body,
incapable of action or passion, is the region which is or may be
occupied by body, and which affords it an opportunity of moving freely.
The existence of bodies is attested by the senses. Space must also
exist, in order to allow bodies place in which to move and exist; and of
their existence and motion we have the certain proof of perception.
Beside body and space, no third nature can be conceived. But the
existence of qualities is not precluded, because these have no
subsistence except in the body to which they belong. The universe,
consisting of body and space, is infinite. Bodies are infinite in
multitude; space is infinite in magnitude. The universe is immovable,
because there is no place beyond it into which it can move. It is also
eternal and immutable, since it is liable to neither increase nor
decrease, to production nor decay. Nevertheless, the parts of the
universe are in motion, and are subject to change. All bodies consist of
parts which are either themselves simple principles, or may be resolved
into such. These first principles, or simple atoms, are divisible by no
force, and therefore must be immutable.
2. The formation of the world he conceived to have happened in the
following manner: A finite number of that infinite multitude of atoms,
which, with infinite space, constitute the universe, falling
fortuitously into the region of the world, were, in consequence of their
innate motion, collected into one rude and indigested mass. In this
chaos, the heaviest and largest atoms, or collections of atoms, first
subsided, while the smaller, and those which from their form would move
most freely, were driven upwards. These latter, after several
reverberations, rose into the outer region of the world, and formed the
heavens. Those atoms which, by their size and figure, were suited to
form fiery bodies, collected themselves into stars; those which were not
capable of rising so high in the sphere of the world, being disturbed by
the fiery particles, formed themselves into air. At length, from those
which subsided, was produced the earth. By the action of air, agitated
by heat from the heavenly bodies, upon the mixed mass of the earth, its
smoother and lighter particles were separated from the rest, and water
was produced, which naturally flowed into the lowest places. In the
first combination of atoms, which formed the chaos, various seeds arose,
which, being preserved and nourished by moisture and heat, afterward
sprung forth in organized bodies of different kinds. The soul is a
subtle corporeal substance, composed of the finest atoms, which, by the
extreme tenuity of its particles, is able to penetrate the whole body,
and to adhere to all its parts. It is composed of four distinct parts:
fire, which causes animal heat; an ethereal principle which is moist
vapour; air; and a fourth principle, which is the cause of sensation.
These four parts are so perfectly combined as to form one subtle
substance, which, while it remains in the body, is the cause of all its
faculties, motions, and passions, and which cannot be separated from it,
without producing the entire dissolution of the animal system.
3. In the universe there are, according to Epicurus, without
contradiction, divine natures; because nature itself has impressed the
idea of divinity upon the minds of men. The notion is universal; nor is
it established by custom, law, or any human institution; but it is the
effect of an innate principle, producing universal consent, and
therefore it must be true. This universal notion has probably arisen
from images of the gods, which have casually made their way into the
minds of men in sleep, and have afterward been recollected. But it is
inconsistent with our natural notions of the gods, as happy and immortal
beings, to suppose that they encumber themselves with the management of
the world, or are subject to the cares and passions which must attend so
great a charge. Hence it is inferred, that the gods have no intercourse
with mankind, nor any concern with the affairs of the world.
Nevertheless, on account of their excellent nature, they are objects of
reverence and worship. In their external shape the gods resemble men;
and though the place of their residence is unknown to mortals; it is
without doubt the mansion of perfect purity, tranquillity, and
happiness. Thus he attempted to account for all the appearances of
nature, even those which respect animated and intelligent beings, upon
the simple principles of matter and motion, without introducing the
agency of a supreme intelligence, or admitting any other idea of fate,
than that of blind necessity inherent in every atom, by which it moves
in a certain direction.
4. The ethics of Epicurus are much less exceptionable than his physics;
of which we may judge from the following summary: The end of living, or
the ultimate good, which is to be sought for its own sake, according to
the universal opinion of mankind, is happiness; which men generally fail
of attaining, because they form wrong notions of the nature of
happiness, or do not use proper means for attaining it. The happiness
which belongs to man, is that state in which he enjoys as many of the
good things, and suffers as few of the evils incident to human nature as
possible, passing his days in a smooth course of permanent tranquillity.
Perfect happiness cannot possibly be possessed without the pleasure that
attends freedom from pain, and the enjoyment of the good things of life.
Pleasure is in its nature good, and ought to be pursued; and pain is in
its nature evil, and should be avoided. Beside, pleasure or pain is the
measure of what is good or evil in every object of desire or aversion.
However, pleasure ought not in every instance to be pursued, nor pain to
be avoided; but reason is to distinguish and compare the nature and
degrees of each, that the result may be a wise choice of that which
shall appear to be, upon the whole, good. That pleasure is the first
good, appears from the inclination which every animal, from its first
birth, discovers to pursue pleasure and avoid pain; and is confirmed by
the universal experience of mankind, who are incited to action by no
other principle, than the desire of avoiding pain, or obtaining
pleasure. Of pleasures there are two kinds; one consisting in a state of
rest, in which both body and mind are free from pain; the other arising
from an agreeable agitation of the senses, producing a correspondent
emotion in the soul. Upon the former of these, the enjoyment of life
chiefly depends. Happiness may, therefore, be said to consist in bodily
ease and mental tranquillity. It is the office of reason to confine the
pursuit of pleasure within the limits of nature, so as to attain this
happy state; which neither resembles a rapid torrent, nor a standing
pool, but is like a gentle stream, that glides smoothly and silently
along. This happy state can only be attained by a prudent care of the
body, and a steady government of the mind. The diseases of the body are
to be prevented by temperance, or cured by medicine, or endured
tolerably by patience. Against the diseases of the mind philosophy
provides sufficient antidotes; the virtues are its instruments for this
purpose; the radical spring of which is prudence, or wisdom, and this
instructs men to free their understanding from the clouds of prejudice;
to exercise temperance and fortitude in the government of themselves;
and to practise justice toward all others. In a happy life, pleasure can
never be separated from virtue. The followers of Epicurus, however,
degenerated into mere sensualists,--an effect which could only result
from a system which denied a supreme God, and excluded from all concern
with the affairs of men even those divine natures which it allowed to
exist. This sect is mentioned Acts xvii, 18.
their founder, who lived about B. C. 300. The physical doctrine of
Epicurus was as follows: Nothing can ever spring from nothing, nor can
any thing ever return to nothing. The universe always existed, and will
always remain; for there is nothing into which it can be changed. There
is nothing in nature, nor can any thing be conceived, beside body and
space. Body is that which possesses the properties of bulk, figure,
resistance, and gravity; it is this alone which can touch and be
touched. Space, or vacuum, destitute of the properties of body,
incapable of action or passion, is the region which is or may be
occupied by body, and which affords it an opportunity of moving freely.
The existence of bodies is attested by the senses. Space must also
exist, in order to allow bodies place in which to move and exist; and of
their existence and motion we have the certain proof of perception.
Beside body and space, no third nature can be conceived. But the
existence of qualities is not precluded, because these have no
subsistence except in the body to which they belong. The universe,
consisting of body and space, is infinite. Bodies are infinite in
multitude; space is infinite in magnitude. The universe is immovable,
because there is no place beyond it into which it can move. It is also
eternal and immutable, since it is liable to neither increase nor
decrease, to production nor decay. Nevertheless, the parts of the
universe are in motion, and are subject to change. All bodies consist of
parts which are either themselves simple principles, or may be resolved
into such. These first principles, or simple atoms, are divisible by no
force, and therefore must be immutable.
2. The formation of the world he conceived to have happened in the
following manner: A finite number of that infinite multitude of atoms,
which, with infinite space, constitute the universe, falling
fortuitously into the region of the world, were, in consequence of their
innate motion, collected into one rude and indigested mass. In this
chaos, the heaviest and largest atoms, or collections of atoms, first
subsided, while the smaller, and those which from their form would move
most freely, were driven upwards. These latter, after several
reverberations, rose into the outer region of the world, and formed the
heavens. Those atoms which, by their size and figure, were suited to
form fiery bodies, collected themselves into stars; those which were not
capable of rising so high in the sphere of the world, being disturbed by
the fiery particles, formed themselves into air. At length, from those
which subsided, was produced the earth. By the action of air, agitated
by heat from the heavenly bodies, upon the mixed mass of the earth, its
smoother and lighter particles were separated from the rest, and water
was produced, which naturally flowed into the lowest places. In the
first combination of atoms, which formed the chaos, various seeds arose,
which, being preserved and nourished by moisture and heat, afterward
sprung forth in organized bodies of different kinds. The soul is a
subtle corporeal substance, composed of the finest atoms, which, by the
extreme tenuity of its particles, is able to penetrate the whole body,
and to adhere to all its parts. It is composed of four distinct parts:
fire, which causes animal heat; an ethereal principle which is moist
vapour; air; and a fourth principle, which is the cause of sensation.
These four parts are so perfectly combined as to form one subtle
substance, which, while it remains in the body, is the cause of all its
faculties, motions, and passions, and which cannot be separated from it,
without producing the entire dissolution of the animal system.
3. In the universe there are, according to Epicurus, without
contradiction, divine natures; because nature itself has impressed the
idea of divinity upon the minds of men. The notion is universal; nor is
it established by custom, law, or any human institution; but it is the
effect of an innate principle, producing universal consent, and
therefore it must be true. This universal notion has probably arisen
from images of the gods, which have casually made their way into the
minds of men in sleep, and have afterward been recollected. But it is
inconsistent with our natural notions of the gods, as happy and immortal
beings, to suppose that they encumber themselves with the management of
the world, or are subject to the cares and passions which must attend so
great a charge. Hence it is inferred, that the gods have no intercourse
with mankind, nor any concern with the affairs of the world.
Nevertheless, on account of their excellent nature, they are objects of
reverence and worship. In their external shape the gods resemble men;
and though the place of their residence is unknown to mortals; it is
without doubt the mansion of perfect purity, tranquillity, and
happiness. Thus he attempted to account for all the appearances of
nature, even those which respect animated and intelligent beings, upon
the simple principles of matter and motion, without introducing the
agency of a supreme intelligence, or admitting any other idea of fate,
than that of blind necessity inherent in every atom, by which it moves
in a certain direction.
4. The ethics of Epicurus are much less exceptionable than his physics;
of which we may judge from the following summary: The end of living, or
the ultimate good, which is to be sought for its own sake, according to
the universal opinion of mankind, is happiness; which men generally fail
of attaining, because they form wrong notions of the nature of
happiness, or do not use proper means for attaining it. The happiness
which belongs to man, is that state in which he enjoys as many of the
good things, and suffers as few of the evils incident to human nature as
possible, passing his days in a smooth course of permanent tranquillity.
Perfect happiness cannot possibly be possessed without the pleasure that
attends freedom from pain, and the enjoyment of the good things of life.
Pleasure is in its nature good, and ought to be pursued; and pain is in
its nature evil, and should be avoided. Beside, pleasure or pain is the
measure of what is good or evil in every object of desire or aversion.
However, pleasure ought not in every instance to be pursued, nor pain to
be avoided; but reason is to distinguish and compare the nature and
degrees of each, that the result may be a wise choice of that which
shall appear to be, upon the whole, good. That pleasure is the first
good, appears from the inclination which every animal, from its first
birth, discovers to pursue pleasure and avoid pain; and is confirmed by
the universal experience of mankind, who are incited to action by no
other principle, than the desire of avoiding pain, or obtaining
pleasure. Of pleasures there are two kinds; one consisting in a state of
rest, in which both body and mind are free from pain; the other arising
from an agreeable agitation of the senses, producing a correspondent
emotion in the soul. Upon the former of these, the enjoyment of life
chiefly depends. Happiness may, therefore, be said to consist in bodily
ease and mental tranquillity. It is the office of reason to confine the
pursuit of pleasure within the limits of nature, so as to attain this
happy state; which neither resembles a rapid torrent, nor a standing
pool, but is like a gentle stream, that glides smoothly and silently
along. This happy state can only be attained by a prudent care of the
body, and a steady government of the mind. The diseases of the body are
to be prevented by temperance, or cured by medicine, or endured
tolerably by patience. Against the diseases of the mind philosophy
provides sufficient antidotes; the virtues are its instruments for this
purpose; the radical spring of which is prudence, or wisdom, and this
instructs men to free their understanding from the clouds of prejudice;
to exercise temperance and fortitude in the government of themselves;
and to practise justice toward all others. In a happy life, pleasure can
never be separated from virtue. The followers of Epicurus, however,
degenerated into mere sensualists,--an effect which could only result
from a system which denied a supreme God, and excluded from all concern
with the affairs of men even those divine natures which it allowed to
exist. This sect is mentioned Acts xvii, 18.